The percentage of global alignment resulted in ~60% similarity. This difference in charge density may alter the pharmacological activities of LAAOs as observed with other snake venom enzymes. The movements of the imidazole ring of the side chain are probably related to the mechanism of deprotonation of the substrate. Lo, and K.-C. Peng, “L-Amino acid oxidase-induced apoptosis in filamentous. and is transmitted to the vertebrate host through the bite of mosquitoes of the genera Lutzomyia (Old World) and Phlebotomus (New World). Exposure to temperatures higher than 55°C results in a gradual decrease in activity caused by disruptions in hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds between the different subunits of the enzyme. [47], hydrogen peroxide produced during the catalytic reaction plays a fundamental role in the inhibition of platelet function, but the exact mechanism is still unclear. Some LAAOs have been described as edematogenic, including LNV-LAAO from Eristicophis macmahoni [83], TM-LAO from Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus [108], Balt-LAAO-I from Bothrops alternatus [35], BpirLAAO-I from Bothrops pirajai [32], ABU-LAO from Agkistrodon blomhoffii ussurensis [29], BmooLAAO-I from Bothrops moojeni [66], BatroxLAAO from Bothrops atrox [25], BF-LAAO from Bungarus fasciatus [55], and DrLAO from Daboia russelii [16]. [49] Predator and prey pairs are expected to associate with one another for stable periods of time. [34][35] This variation in molecular mass among different LAAOs might be related to the sites of glycosylation since these enzymes are considered to be glycoproteins [14, 24, 28, 30, 32–35, 66, 69, 77, 78]. [85], the controversial results reported might be associated with differences in experimental procedures or plasma preparation. However, all LAAOs share a highly conserved dinucleotide-binding region with MAO, D-amino acid oxidase, tryptophan 2-monooxygenase, and various other proteins that may also require FAD [37]. Chagas disease is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and is transmitted by the vector Triatoma infestans (“barbeiro”). This maximal specific activity of each LAAO is related to the optimum pH for each type of amino acid acting as the substrate [58]. This provides more evidence as to why venom has become a homoplastic trait and why very different animals have convergently evolved. Phylogenetic analyses were run using the website http://www.phylogeny.fr/ [96]. [48] The coevolution between venomous predators and venom resistant prey is best described as a chemical arms race. The probable mechanisms induced by LAAOs on proteins involve the enzymatic oxidation of L-amino acids [36]. The repeated interactions fostered the development of an anti-snake venom defense in the California ground squirrels. The authors proposed that this effect may not be dependent on ADP but requires thromboxane A2 since they observed no change in aggregation activity when the creatine phosphokinase/creatine phosphate system, which consumes ADP, was added. The process of necrosis could be related to the direct action of hydrogen peroxide on the plasma cell membrane, since within the mechanism of apoptosis the development of morphological, biochemical, and molecular changes leads to cell death. Sea snake venom is composed of complex mixtures of neurotoxins, myotoxins, nephrotoxins, and other nontoxic substances. Snake venom is a very complex chemical mix that varies species by species, and can even vary in one species over time or by location. Cytotoxins, which kill individual cells, are found in the apitoxin of honey bees and the venom of black widow spiders. Consequently, venoms become specialized to an animal's standard diet. II. On the other hand, studies have shown the ability of various LAAOs to induce platelet aggregation [21, 24, 25, 31, 32, 35, 46, 69, 70]. This reactive oxygen species, according to Ande et al. As a result, different assays for the characterization of the toxic and pharmacological effects of these enzymes were standardized to obtain a better understanding. Generally, the composition of LAAOs is quantitatively similar, with many asparagine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid residues and few methionine and tryptophan residues. Inhibitory activities on the growth of Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania donovani infantum or other species of Leishmania have been reported for different snake venoms [113]. Other ions such as manganese and calcium do not affect the activity of these enzymes. [103] showed similarity with other snake venom LAAOs in terms of the large number of glutamic acid residues found in this region, suggesting an important functional role of the N-terminal region of these enzymes [31, 35]. This type of inactivation can be prevented by the addition of monovalent anions, substrates, and substrate analogs and is characterized by high activation energy. The obligate relationship between the clownfish and the sea anemone has allowed the radiation of clownfishes.[69]. Furthermore, the correlation between the production of LAAOs and their utilization in metabolic pathways involving nitrogen, as well as the production of hydrogen peroxide, opens perspectives for new applications of these enzymes as bactericidal, antiviral, and antitumor agents, making them a promising biotechnological agent. Snake Venom L-Amino Acid Oxidases: Trends in Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Faculdade de Ciências Integradas do Pontal e Departamento de Genética e Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia, MG, Brazil, Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto (FCFRP), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil, Departamento de Química, Biotecnologia e Engenharia de Bioprocessos, Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Campus Altoparaopeba, Ouro Branco, MG, Brazil, Sephadex G-100, Q Column, HiTrap Heparin HP, Sephacryl S-200, Sephacryl S-300, DEAE Sepharose CL-6B, DEAE Sephadex A-50 ion-exchange, Sephadex G-75 gel filtration and C4 reverse phase, Protein Pack SP 5PW HPLC, Protein Pack SP 5PW anion exchanger, Superdex 200, CM-Sepharose, Phenyl-Sepharose CL-4B, Benzamidine Sepharose and C18 RP-HPLC, G-75, HPLC-Shodex ES-502N 7C, Lentil Lectin, Sephadex G-75, Benzamidine-Sepharose, Phenyl-Sepharose, Sephadex G-50 SF, CM-cellulose CM52, HPS-7, Sephadex G-100, HPS-7, DEAE-cellulose DE52., CM-cellulose CM52. [56] They use toxin scavenging to negate the effects of the haemolytic toxins of their rattlesnake predators, demonstrating a physiological resistance to rattlesnake venom. [57] Rattlesnakes demonstrated local adaptions in the effectiveness of their venom in order to overcome the venom resistant squirrels. Most LAAOs described so far are variably acidic, with isoelectric points above 4.4 (Table 1). Leishmaniasis comprises a broad spectrum of infectious complications ranging from skin ulcerations to progressive and lethal visceral infections [115]. Zhang et al. [54], Pen-tailed treeshrews are the only known mammals that consume alcohol every night, other than humans. In addition, the possible inhibition of endogenous PLA2 may play an important role in platelet aggregation. Inflammation and infections in the mammary glands are reduced by the presence of the antimicrobial agent, when continually secreted with milk. "The Aerial Yellowjacket Dolichovespula Arenaria." Zhang et al. Li, T.-F. Yu, and E. C.-Y. The development of recombinant DNA techniques and nucleotide and amino acid sequencing has permitted the creation of databases that are shared by various researchers in order to identify the composition of each venom and the key activities of each protein. Apparently, all snakes have the 'machinery' to create and deliver venom, and to release it either along specific teeth or just into the mouth as part of the saliva (venom, by the way, is basically a saliva that works outside of the snake's mouth.) II Isolation and Characterization of homogeneous L-amino acid oxidase,”, R. G. Stábeli, C. D. Sant’Ana, P. H. Ribeiro et al., “Cytotoxic L-amino acid oxidase from, S. Soltysik, C. M. Byron, G. H. Einarsdottir, and M. T. Stankovich, “The effects of reversible freezing inactivation and inhibitor binding on redox properties of l-amino-acid oxidase,”, D. Wellner and A. Meister, “Crystalline L-amino acid oxidase of, J.-F. Wei, Q. Wei, Q.-M. Lu et al., “Purification, characterization and biological activity of an L-amino acid oxidase from, Q.-M. Lu, Q. Wei, Y. Jin, J.-F. Wei, W.-Y. A similar explanation was provided for the trypanocidal effect of LAAOs [27, 66, 95]. The authors therefore suggested that the induction of platelet aggregation by this enzyme is intimately related to the formation of hydrogen peroxide and the subsequent synthesis of thromboxane A2 which requires Ca2+, independent of the release of ADP. Alterations in blood coagulation induced by snake venoms have also been the target of many studies conducted in Brazil since the 1960s. Thus, Fas-mediated apoptosis in human endothelial cells may contribute to the mechanism of hydrogen peroxide-induced endothelial cell injury. [12] In Polistes exclamans, venom is used as an alarm pheromone, coordinating a response with from the nest and attracting nearby wasps to attack the predator. An LAAO isolated from B. moojeni venom presented leishmanicidal activity against promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis five times higher than that of the crude venom [66, 113]. Du and K. J. Clemetson, “Snake venom L-amino acid oxidases,”, T. Nishizawa, C. C. Aldrich, and D. H. Sherman, “Molecular analysis of the rebeccamycin L-amino acid oxidase from, J. T. Nuutinen and S. Timonen, “Identification of nitrogen mineralization enzymes, l-amino acid oxidases, from the ectomycorrhizal fungi, M. Blanchard, D. Green, V. Nocito et al., “L-Amino acid oxidase of animal tissue,”, A. Zeller and A. Maritiz, “Uber eine neue L-aminosaure Oxidase,”, S. Iwanaga and T. Suzuki, “Enzymes in snake venoms,” in, E. K. Johnson, K. V. Kardong, and C. L. Ownby, “Observations on white and yellow venoms from an individual southern Pacific rattlesnake (, L. J. Vargas, J. C. Quintana, J. Sun, C. Guo, Y. Tian, D. Chen, F. T. Greenaway, and S. Liu, “Biochemical, functional and structural characterization of Akbu-LAAO: a novel snake venom l-amino acid oxidase from, A. F. Costa Torres, R. T. Dantas, M. H. Toyama et al., “Antibacterial and antiparasitic effects of, S. S. More, K. M. Kiran, S. M. Veena, and J. R. Gadag, “Purification of an l-amino acid oxidase from, I. M. B. Francischetti, V. My-Pham, J. Harrison, M. K. Garfield, and J. M. C. Ribeiro, “, P. Ciscotto, R. A. Machado de Avila, E. A. F. Coelho et al., “Antigenic, microbicidal and antiparasitic properties of an l-amino acid oxidase isolated from, R. S. Rodrigues, J. F. da Silva, J. Boldrini França et al., “Structural and functional properties of Bp-LAAO, a new l-amino acid oxidase isolated from, R. M. Alves, G. A. Antonucci, H. H. Paiva et al., “Evidence of caspase-mediated apoptosis induced by l-amino acid oxidase isolated from, M. D. M. Braga, A. M. C. Martins, D. N. Amora et al., “Purification and biological effects of l-amino acid oxidase isolated from, C. D. Sant'Ana, D. L. Menaldo, T. R. Costa et al., “Antiviral and antiparasite properties of an l-amino acid oxidase from the Snake, M. Samel, K. Tõnismägi, G. Rönnholm et al., “l-Amino acid oxidase from Naja naja oxiana venom,”, L. Zhang and L.-J.